With a passion for understanding global dynamics, Justine is committed to promoting sustainable development and policy advocacy. Outside of work, she enjoys reading biographies and feminist essays, as well as indulging in her love for cooking and salsa dancing. Justine aspires to further her career as a policy analyst, where she can continue to contribute to meaningful global change.
On the 30th of July, Angola announced a ceasefire agreement between Rwanda and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). Welcomed by the UN as a positive step towards de-escalation, the agreement is part of a longstanding context of violence and tensions that have plagued Eastern DRC for decades. Despite several peace agreements, peacekeeping missions, and international pressure, the situation deteriorated again in 2021 with the return of the March 23 (M23) armed group.
Over the years, the civilian population in the region has paid a high price. This conflict has led to the internal displacement of 7 million people and an estimated 6 million deaths in the DRC since 1996. Human rights violations, food insecurity, and epidemics are worsening an already dire humanitarian crisis that only peace can start to solve.
The ceasefire agreement came as a fragile sign of improvement. However, the deteriorating humanitarian situation underscores the urgent need for sustainable peace.
Roots of conflict: a genocide and two wars
The conflict’s roots trace back to the genocide in Rwanda in 1994 when the then-Hutu-led government targeted Tutsis. As Paul Kagame – president of Rwanda since then – and his Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) won and took power, millions of Hutus – mainly civilians – crossed the border and fled to DRC in fear of retaliation. Some of these refugees were Hutu extremists and genocide perpetrators who started to form armed groups, profiting from a lack of governance and pre-existing ethnic tensions linked to the refugees’ presence.
Burgenstock, Democratic Republic of the Congo. UN Photo/A Burridge. 2004. Source: UN photos
Kigali accused the Mobutu regime in DRC of complaisance with these groups. In 1996, backed by Tutsi militias based in Congo, Kagame’s military invaded East of the country to fight what Rwanda viewed as an imminent threat. With the support from Laurent Kabila, the opposition leader of the Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo (AFDL), and backing from other African countries—including Uganda, Angola, and Burundi—the Rwandan-led alliance forced Mobutu to flee and ultimately won the first Congo war in 1997.
The Second Congo War began in 1998 when Laurent Kabila, who succeeded Mobutu as head of state, sought to distance the Congolese government from Kigali and reduce its influence. As a symbolic move, he ordered all foreign troops to leave the country. In response, Rwanda invaded the DRC, supported by Uganda, Burundi, and other Tutsi-aligned forces. In 2001, an attempted coup led to the assassination of Laurent Kabila, after which his son, Joseph Kabila, assumed power.
The war was finally ended through the Global Inclusive Agreement of 2002, following four peace agreements: the Lusaka Ceasefire Agreement (1999), the Sun City Agreement (April 2002), the Pretoria Agreement (July 2002), and the Luanda Agreement (September 2002).
Despite these agreements and the first Democratic elections in 2006, Eastern DRC has not achieved lasting peace.
A major aspect of the negotiations was the integration of former fighters into the Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (FARDC). However, a Rwanda-backed group, the National Congress for the Defence of the People (CNDP), resisted joining. The 2009 Goma Agreement incorporated the CNDP into the FARDC, but a faction later split off to form the M23 rebel group in 2012. After briefly occupying Goma, the M23 was driven out by UN forces and remained inactive until reemerging a decade later.
Enduring crisis in the Eastern DRC
Successive peace processes tried to find lasting solutions to bring peace to Eastern Congo. Various tools and mechanisms were involved including the deployment of MONUSCO (United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo), the establishment of the International Conference on the Great Lakes Region (ICGLR), the 2013 “Peace, Security and Cooperation Framework for the DRC, and a Truth and Reconciliation Commission, which, unfortunately, proved to be short-lived. While these initiatives brought temporary relief, they failed to eliminate the issues at the heart of the conflict.
The DRC is an immensely vast country, home to nearly 100 million people. The central government, based in Kinshasa, has struggled to establish effective governance across the entire territory. Lacking access to basic services and disconnected from the rest of the country, large segments of the population feel abandoned and have little faith in their government. In many regions, especially in Eastern DRC, this has created a political vacuum that armed groups exploit to recruit and terrorize local communities. This lack of governance is paired and reinforced by impunity for all the perpetrators of violence – military or militias, corruption, and local conflict dynamics.
UN Photo/Abel Kavanagh 2016. Source: UN photos
Today, multiple actors contribute to the complexity of the DRC. In addition to the main armed groups backed by regional powers, the Islamic State-affiliated Allied Democratic Forces (ADF) and smaller armed factions with varying allegiances are actively part of the violence in East DRC and contributing to peace failure. Neighbouring countries also play a key role in the destabilisation of the region. The Rwandan army‘s continuous presence in DRC to fight the FDLR and its alleged support of the M23 movement are notorious. However, both Burundi and Uganda have also crossed the border to target groups that operate within their territories but hide in the DRC.
Additional foreign stakeholders have interests in East DRC. The DRC’s abundant mineral resources, essential for the energy transition, play a central role in the conflict. The nation holds 60% of the world’s coltan reserves, a critical component for electronics. Chinese and the Western mining companies and others have been operating in the region for decades. Reports show that various actors, including Rwanda, profit from illicit resource trafficking; The DRC government’s limited control over mining sectors allows the continuation of both violence and economic exploitation. As such, resource wealth is a motive and a mechanism for perpetuating conflict.
“A Glimmer of Hope”
Addressing the UN Security Council in early October, Mr. Huang Xia, UN Special Envoy of the Secretary-General for the Great Lakes region, described the ongoing peace talks as “a glimmer of hope.”
In November 2021, the dormant M23 reappeared. Over the past three years, the movement has gained territory and weakened DRC’s army position in the region. Hosted under a new overarching organisation “the Alliance du Fleuve Congo (ACF)” the rebel group is accusing the government of not respecting the 2013 Nairobi agreement, to demobilise and reintegrate M23 soldiers. In February 2024, the armed groups bombed the Goma airport damaging military aircrafts and worrying the UN. Concerns grew with the impending departure of MONUSCO, as the government requested the UN peacekeeping mission to leave due to increasing controversy over its lack of effectiveness.
In response to this resurgence of the M23, new peace processes emerged.
The East African Community (EAC) launched the Nairobi Process in 2022, which engaged diverse stakeholders in dialogues to resolve internal conflict. The Process was seconded by a military volet but the lack of results in neutralising the M23 led to the withdrawal of the troops. It was replaced by The Southern African Development Community Mission in the DRC – SAMIDRC. The Luanda peace process, under the Angolan President João Lourenҫo, aimed to reconcile DRC-Rwanda relations
Both processes are complementary, and after facing difficulties in 2023, they are being revitalized. The July Ceasefire agreement between Rwanda and DRC and the Rubavu agreement focused on neutralizing the FDLR and coordinating the withdrawal of Rwandan forces—suggest renewed commitment to cooperation.
Impediments to a lasting peace process persist. The DRC government refused the mediators’ suggestion to include the M23 in the peace talks. Rwanda continues to deny supporting the M23 despite the United Nations Group of Experts on the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) report. The situation remains fragile, and an expansion of the conflict in the region cannot be dismissed.
Newer peacebuilding approaches are now emerging, such as the recent High-Level Regional Forum of Women of the Great Lakes Region, held in Luanda, which underscores the potential of gender-inclusive efforts to foster reconciliation. Stakeholders are also exploring greater cooperation to reduce resource exploitation, which could limit funds fuelling the conflict and contribute to economic stabilization.
Source: Justine Dumas 2024.
Writer’s Note: This article was written in November 2024. Since then, the situation has significantly deteriorated, with the M23 advancing and seizing key cities in eastern DRC. These developments have further dimmed hopes for a lasting peace, highlighting the persistent challenges in resolving the conflict.
- How does the energy transition factor in the positioning of Western countries and China in the Eastern DRC conflict?
- How could the active and meaningful participation of women in peace processes in Eastern DRC affect the region’s stability?
- What are the implications of Rwanda’s economic growth amid its controversial role in Congo?
Ahere, J. (2012). The peace process in the DRC – ACCORD. [online] ACCORD. Available at: https://www.accord.org.za/publication/peace-process-drc/.
Asanzi, P. ISS Africa. (2024). The revived Luanda Process – inching towards peace in east DRC? | ISS Africa. [online] Available at: https://issafrica.org/iss-today/the-revived-luanda-process-inching-towards-peace-in-east-drc.
Center for Preventive Action (2025). Conflict in the Democratic Republic of Congo. [online] Global Conflict Tracker. Available at: https://www.cfr.org/global-conflict-tracker/conflict/violence-democratic-republic-congo.