Conflicts in Africa | Rising tensions in the Great Lakes Region | UPSC Current Affairs News

Days after the capture of Goma, rebels of the March 23 Movement (M23) rebels and allied Rwandan forces have launched a new offensive in the eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). The ongoing insurgency in the DRC, which is the continuation of protracted turmoil and insecurity that has plagued the region for generations, is intertwined with the region’s geography and resources. 

Let’s explore how natural resources enabled armed groups to fuel conflict in the Great Lakes Region of Africa, and how colonial policies and military coups affect governance in Rwanda and Burundi.

The Great Lakes Region of Africa

The Great Lakes Region of Africa, located in East and Central Africa, is a series of lakes in and around the East African Rift Valley. This vast network of large freshwater lakes in the heart of Africa is endowed with various natural resources, which give the East African Rift Valley a unique ecology and socioeconomic significance. 

These lakes include Lake Victoria (59,947 km2), Lake Tanganyika (32,000 km2), Lake Malawi (29,600 km2), Lake Albert (5,590 km2), Lake Kivu (2,700 km2) and Lake Edward (2,325 km2). They are surrounded by ten riparian states that include Burundi, the DRC, Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda, and Zambia. Most of them have a traumatic past, while violent conflict is endemic in the region.

Lake Kivu, situated between Rwanda and the DRC, contains valuable natural resources. In early January this year, Rwanda announced the discovery of oil in the lake, and soon after, the insurgent activity in the area escalated. Historically, control over these resources has led to protracted strife between state as well as non-state actors, with even external powers intervening. 

The control over natural resources has helped different armed groups to finance their activities. In addition, refugees from different countries like Rwanda, Burundi and the DRC have sought refuge in neighbouring countries. Their presence has further complicated an already fragile situation and made a resolution even more difficult.

Furthermore, the colonial past, and the policies implemented by Germany and Belgium, have left deep-rooted legacies of economic exploitation, ethnic antagonism and weak governance structure in Rwanda and Burundi. Germany’s belief in the “Hamitic hypothesis” – which claimed that the Tutsi were a superior race that migrated from Ethiopian highlands to the region to settle and civilise the so-called “savages” and then issued identity cards based on ethnic classification – solidified societal divisions. It led to the creation of two clearly defined and rigid antagonistic groups – “Tutsi” and “Hutu”.

Rwanda

Rwanda is a small, densely populated, landlocked country. The post-colonial state was deeply fragmented by the Hutu-Tutsi conflict, resulting in a genocide in 1994. The roots of this conflict is traced to the colonial policies that institutionalised rigid tribal identities. At independence in 1962, Hutus were able to gain power for the first time in the country’s history. 

The post-independence period witnessed frequent pogroms against the erstwhile ruling Tutsis. A large number of Tustis, including the former king, spent many years in refugee camps in neighbouring countries like Uganda and Tanzania. The Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) was formed by these refugees, who began waging an insurgency to return home. 

In response to this, a segment of the ruling Hutus formed a paramilitary organisation called Interahamwe (“Those Who Attack Together”). The organisation played a central role in the 1994 Rwandan genocide in which over 800,000 Tutsi and moderate Hutus were killed in just 100 days. The genocide ended only after the RPF successfully captured power. Since then, the RPF has been ruling Rwanda for three decades with tight control, reconciliation and development. 

Since 1994, Rwanda’s economy has undergone a significant transformation, largely attributed to liberal economic policies, and has emerged as one of the fastest-growing economies in Africa. However, the constitution has been amended many times to extend Paul Kagame’s iron grip with a highly centralised government. This is a common trend in Africa where charismatic presidents often remain in power until their death. 

In 2009, Rwanda formally joined the Commonwealth, sealing the country’s shift from a Francophone to an Anglophone country.

Burundi

Similarly, Burundi is a small, mountainous, landlocked country bordering Rwanda. After the defeat of Germany in WWI in 1919, the League of Nations put Rwanda and Burundi under Belgian mandate. The Belgian rule heightened the Hutu-Tutsi division by promoting the Tutsi elite in administrative positions and marginalising the Hutus, thereby deepening social inequities. 

After gaining independence in 1962, Burundi remained a Tutsi monarchy until the 1966 coup. Since then, the country has encountered waves of ethnic cleansing and political upheavals. The first Burundian Genocide took place in 1972, following the return from exile and subsequent assassination of King Ntare V. The Tutsi-dominated government of Michel Micombero responded by brutally quelling the Hutu rebels by targeting the broader Hutu population. 

This was followed by another round of ethnic cleansing in 1993 when even school children were not spared. The current political instability in Burundi stems from a combination of political, social and economic crises, which are largely traced to its colonial legacy and post-independence history of violence. 

The military coups in 1976 by Col. Jean-Baptiste Bagaza and in 1987 by Major Pierre Buyoya further weakened governance structures. The civil war from 1993 to 2005 added to deep scars that continue to hinder the process of reconciliation. Unsolved historical grievances and weak institutions remain persistent challenges. 

Post Read Questions

How does the presence of valuable natural resources impact governance and security in the Great Lakes Region of Africa?

What historical factors have contributed to making violent conflict endemic in this region?

How did German and Belgian colonial policies contribute to the ethnic divisions in Rwanda and Burundi?

What was the “Hamitic hypothesis,” and how did it shape colonial and post-colonial Rwandan society?

What were the causes and consequences of the 1972 and 1993 genocides in Burundi?

(Jamal M. Moosa is the Chairperson of the Centre for African Studies, SIS, JNU and Pratibha Poonia is a doctoral researcher at the same centre. In the second part of the article, the authors will explore Africa’s Great War and implications of the instability in the Great Lakes Region for India.)

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